1 Image, 2*2 Stitchi

Region of Interest Align, or RoIAlign, is an operation for extracting a small feature map from each RoI in detection and segmentation based tasks. It removes the harsh quantization of RoI Pool, properly aligning the extracted features with the input. To avoid any quantization of the RoI boundaries or bins (using $x/16$ instead of $[x/16]$), RoIAlign uses bilinear interpolation to compute the exact values of the input features at four regularly sampled locations in each RoI bin, and the result is then aggregated (using max or average).

Instance Normalization (also known as contrast normalization) is a normalization layer where: $$ y_{tijk} = \frac{x_{tijk} - \mu_{ti}}{\sqrt{\sigma_{ti}^2 + \epsilon}}, \quad \mu_{ti} = \frac{1}{HW}\sum_{l=1}^W \sum_{m=1}^H x_{tilm}, \quad \sigma_{ti}^2 = \frac{1}{HW}\sum_{l=1}^W \sum_{m=1}^H (x_{tilm} - \mu_{ti})^2. $$ This prevents instance-specific mean and covariance shift simplifying the learning process. Intuitively, the normalization process allows to remove instance-specific contrast information from the content image in a task like image stylization, which simplifies generation.

Cycle Consistency Loss is a type of loss used for generative adversarial networks that performs unpaired image-to-image translation. It was introduced with the CycleGAN architecture. For two domains $X$ and $Y$, we want to learn a mapping $G : X \rightarrow Y$ and $F: Y \rightarrow X$. We want to enforce the intuition that these mappings should be reverses of each other and that both mappings should be bijections. Cycle Consistency Loss encourages $F\left(G\left(x\right)\right) \approx x$ and $G\left(F\left(y\right)\right) \approx y$. It reduces the space of possible mapping functions by enforcing forward and backwards consistency: $$ \mathcal{L}\_{cyc}\left(G, F\right) = \mathbb{E}\_{x \sim p\_{data}\left(x\right)}\left[||F\left(G\left(x\right)\right) - x||\_{1}\right] + \mathbb{E}\_{y \sim p\_{data}\left(y\right)}\left[||G\left(F\left(y\right)\right) - y||\_{1}\right] $$

Mask R-CNN extends Faster R-CNN to solve instance segmentation tasks. It achieves this by adding a branch for predicting an object mask in parallel with the existing branch for bounding box recognition. In principle, Mask R-CNN is an intuitive extension of Faster R-CNN, but constructing the mask branch properly is critical for good results. Most importantly, Faster R-CNN was not designed for pixel-to-pixel alignment between network inputs and outputs. This is evident in how RoIPool, the de facto core operation for attending to instances, performs coarse spatial quantization for feature extraction. To fix the misalignment, Mask R-CNN utilises a simple, quantization-free layer, called RoIAlign, that faithfully preserves exact spatial locations. Secondly, Mask R-CNN decouples mask and class prediction: it predicts a binary mask for each class independently, without competition among classes, and relies on the network's RoI classification branch to predict the category. In contrast, an FCN usually perform per-pixel multi-class categorization, which couples segmentation and classification.

Diffusion models applied to latent spaces, which are normally built with (Variational) Autoencoders.

A Non-Local Operation is a component for capturing long-range dependencies with deep neural networks. It is a generalization of the classical non-local mean operation in computer vision. Intuitively a non-local operation computes the response at a position as a weighted sum of the features at all positions in the input feature maps. The set of positions can be in space, time, or spacetime, implying that these operations are applicable for image, sequence, and video problems. Following the non-local mean operation, a generic non-local operation for deep neural networks is defined as: $$ \mathbb{y}\_{i} = \frac{1}{\mathcal{C}\left(\mathbb{x}\right)}\sum\_{\forall{j}}f\left(\mathbb{x}\_{i}, \mathbb{x}\_{j}\right)g\left(\mathbb{x}\_{j}\right) $$ Here $i$ is the index of an output position (in space, time, or spacetime) whose response is to be computed and $j$ is the index that enumerates all possible positions. x is the input signal (image, sequence, video; often their features) and $y$ is the output signal of the same size as $x$. A pairwise function $f$ computes a scalar (representing relationship such as affinity) between $i$ and all $j$. The unary function $g$ computes a representation of the input signal at the position $j$. The response is normalized by a factor $C\left(x\right)$. The non-local behavior is due to the fact that all positions ($\forall{j}$) are considered in the operation. As a comparison, a convolutional operation sums up the weighted input in a local neighborhood (e.g., $i − 1 \leq j \leq i + 1$ in a 1D case with kernel size 3), and a recurrent operation at time $i$ is often based only on the current and the latest time steps (e.g., $j = i$ or $i − 1$). The non-local operation is also different from a fully-connected (fc) layer. The equation above computes responses based on relationships between different locations, whereas fc uses learned weights. In other words, the relationship between $x\_{j}$ and $x\_{i}$ is not a function of the input data in fc, unlike in nonlocal layers. Furthermore, the formulation in the equation above supports inputs of variable sizes, and maintains the corresponding size in the output. On the contrary, an fc layer requires a fixed-size input/output and loses positional correspondence (e.g., that from $x\_{i}$ to $y\_{i}$ at the position $i$). A non-local operation is a flexible building block and can be easily used together with convolutional/recurrent layers. It can be added into the earlier part of deep neural networks, unlike fc layers that are often used in the end. This allows us to build a richer hierarchy that combines both non-local and local information. In terms of parameterisation, we usually parameterise $g$ as a linear embedding of the form $g\left(x\_{j}\right) = W\_{g}\mathbb{x}\_{j}$ , where $W\_{g}$ is a weight matrix to be learned. This is implemented as, e.g., 1×1 convolution in space or 1×1×1 convolution in spacetime. For $f$ we use an affinity function, a list of which can be found here.

A Non-Local Block is an image block module used in neural networks that wraps a non-local operation. We can define a non-local block as: $$ \mathbb{z}\_{i} = W\_{z}\mathbb{y\_{i}} + \mathbb{x}\_{i} $$ where $y\_{i}$ is the output from the non-local operation and $+ \mathbb{x}\_{i}$ is a residual connection.

HRNet, or High-Resolution Net, is a general purpose convolutional neural network for tasks like semantic segmentation, object detection and image classification. It is able to maintain high resolution representations through the whole process. We start from a high-resolution convolution stream, gradually add high-to-low resolution convolution streams one by one, and connect the multi-resolution streams in parallel. The resulting network consists of several ($4$ in the paper) stages and the $n$th stage contains $n$ streams corresponding to $n$ resolutions. The authors conduct repeated multi-resolution fusions by exchanging the information across the parallel streams over and over.

In this work, we pursue a unified paradigm for multimodal pretraining to break the scaffolds of complex task/modality-specific customization. We propose OFA, a Task-Agnostic and Modality-Agnostic framework that supports Task Comprehensiveness. OFA unifies a diverse set of cross-modal and unimodal tasks, including image generation, visual grounding, image captioning, image classification, language modeling, etc., in a simple sequence-to-sequence learning framework. OFA follows the instruction-based learning in both pretraining and finetuning stages, requiring no extra task-specific layers for downstream tasks. In comparison with the recent state-of-the-art vision & language models that rely on extremely large cross-modal datasets, OFA is pretrained on only 20M publicly available image-text pairs. Despite its simplicity and relatively small-scale training data, OFA achieves new SOTAs in a series of cross-modal tasks while attaining highly competitive performances on uni-modal tasks. Our further analysis indicates that OFA can also effectively transfer to unseen tasks and unseen domains. Our code and models are publicly available at https://github.com/OFA-Sys/OFA.

GLIDE is a generative model based on text-guided diffusion models for more photorealistic image generation. Guided diffusion is applied to text-conditional image synthesis and the model is able to handle free-form prompts. The diffusion model uses a text encoder to condition on natural language descriptions. The model is provided with editing capabilities in addition to zero-shot generation, allowing for iterative improvement of model samples to match more complex prompts. The model is fine-tuned to perform image inpainting.

SpatialDropout is a type of dropout for convolutional networks. For a given convolution feature tensor of size $n\_{\text{feats}}$×height×width, we perform only $n\_{\text{feats}}$ dropout trials and extend the dropout value across the entire feature map. Therefore, adjacent pixels in the dropped-out feature map are either all 0 (dropped-out) or all active as illustrated in the figure to the right.

Stacked Hourglass Networks are a type of convolutional neural network for pose estimation. They are based on the successive steps of pooling and upsampling that are done to produce a final set of predictions.

CheXNet is a 121-layer DenseNet trained on ChestX-ray14 for pneumonia detection.

Modules used in GAN's style transfer.

Triplet attention comprises of three branches each responsible for capturing crossdimension between the spatial dimensions and channel dimension of the input. Given an input tensor with shape (C × H × W), each branch is responsible for aggregating cross-dimensional interactive features between either the spatial dimension H or W and the channel dimension C.

TLC convert the global operation to a local one so that it extract representations based on local spatial region of features as in training phase.

Collaborative Distillation is a new knowledge distillation method (named Collaborative Distillation) for encoder-decoder based neural style transfer to reduce the number of convolutional filters. The main idea is underpinned by a finding that the encoder-decoder pairs construct an exclusive collaborative relationship, which is regarded as a new kind of knowledge for style transfer models.

Embedded Gaussian Affinity is a type of affinity or self-similarity function between two points $\mathbf{x\_{i}}$ and $\mathbf{x\_{j}}$ that uses a Gaussian function in an embedding space: $$ f\left(\mathbf{x\_{i}}, \mathbf{x\_{j}}\right) = e^{\theta\left(\mathbf{x\_{i}}\right)^{T}\phi\left(\mathbf{x\_{j}}\right)} $$ Here $\theta\left(x\_{i}\right) = W\_{θ}x\_{i}$ and $\phi\left(x\_{j}\right) = W\_{φ}x\_{j}$ are two embeddings. Note that the self-attention module used in the original Transformer model is a special case of non-local operations in the embedded Gaussian version. This can be seen from the fact that for a given $i$, $\frac{1}{\mathcal{C}\left(\mathbf{x}\right)}\sum\_{\forall{j}}f\left(\mathbf{x}\_{i}, \mathbf{x}\_{j}\right)g\left(\mathbf{x}\_{j}\right)$ becomes the softmax computation along the dimension $j$. So we have $\mathbf{y} = \text{softmax}\left(\mathbf{x}^{T}W^{T}\_{\theta}W\_{\phi}\mathbf{x}\right)g\left(\mathbf{x}\right)$, which is the self-attention form in the Transformer model. This shows how we can relate this recent self-attention model to the classic computer vision method of non-local means.

In this work, we present a conceptually simple and effective method to train a strong bilingual multimodal representation model. Starting from the pretrained multimodal representation model CLIP released by OpenAI, we switched its text encoder with a pretrained multilingual text encoder XLM-R, and aligned both languages and image representations by a two-stage training schema consisting of teacher learning and contrastive learning. We validate our method through evaluations of a wide range of tasks. We set new state-of-the-art performances on a bunch of tasks including ImageNet-CN, Flicker30k- CN, and COCO-CN. Further, we obtain very close performances with CLIP on almost all tasks, suggesting that one can simply alter the text encoder in CLIP for extended capabilities such as multilingual understanding. Our models and code are available at https://github.com/FlagAI-Open/FlagAI.

Revision Network is a style transfer module that aims to revise the rough stylized image via generating residual details image $r_{c s}$, while the final stylized image is generated by combining $r\_{c s}$ and rough stylized image $\bar{x}\_{c s}$. This procedure ensures that the distribution of global style pattern in $\bar{x}\_{c s}$ is properly kept. Meanwhile, learning to revise local style patterns with residual details image is easier for the Revision Network. As shown in the Figure, the Revision Network is designed as a simple yet effective encoder-decoder architecture, with only one down-sampling and one up-sampling layer. Further, a patch discriminator is used to help Revision Network to capture fine patch textures under adversarial learning setting. The patch discriminator $D$ is defined following SinGAN, where $D$ owns 5 convolution layers and 32 hidden channels. A relatively shallow $D$ is chosen to (1) avoid overfitting since we only have one style image and (2) control the receptive field to ensure D can only capture local patterns.

Teacher-Tutor-Student Knowledge Distillation is a method for image virtual try-on models. It treats fake images produced by the parser-based method as "tutor knowledge", where the artifacts can be corrected by real "teacher knowledge", which is extracted from the real person images in a self-supervised way. Other than using real images as supervisions, knowledge distillation is formulated in the try-on problem as distilling the appearance flows between the person image and the garment image, enabling the finding of dense correspondences between them to produce high-quality results.

Blended Diffusion enables a zero-shot local text-guided image editing of natural images. Given an input image $x$, an input mask $m$ and a target guiding text $t$ - the method enables to change the masked area within the image corresponding the the guiding text s.t. the unmasked area is left unchanged.

Represent and associate with a composite of primitive fields.

Differential Diffusion is an enhancement of image-to-image diffusion models that adds the ability to control the amount of change applied to each image fragment via a change map.

MPRNet is a multi-stage progressive image restoration architecture that progressively learns restoration functions for the degraded inputs, thereby breaking down the overall recovery process into more manageable steps. Specifically, the model first learns the contextualized features using encoder-decoder architectures and later combines them with a high-resolution branch that retains local information. At each stage, a per-pixel adaptive design is introduced that leverages in-situ supervised attention to reweight the local features.

A Style-based Recalibration Module (SRM) is a module for convolutional neural networks that adaptively recalibrates intermediate feature maps by exploiting their styles. SRM first extracts the style information from each channel of the feature maps by style pooling, then estimates per-channel recalibration weight via channel-independent style integration. By incorporating the relative importance of individual styles into feature maps, SRM is aimed at enhancing the representational ability of a CNN. The overall structure of SRM is illustrated in the Figure to the right. It consists of two main components: style pooling and style integration. The style pooling operator extracts style features from each channel by summarizing feature responses across spatial dimensions. It is followed by the style integration operator, which produces example-specific style weights by utilizing the style features via channel-wise operation. The style weights finally recalibrate the feature maps to either emphasize or suppress their information.

ZoomNet is a 2D human whole-body pose estimation technique. It aims to localize dense landmarks on the entire human body including face, hands, body, and feet. ZoomNet follows the top-down paradigm. Given a human bounding box of each person, ZoomNet first localizes the easy-to-detect body keypoints and estimates the rough position of hands and face. Then it zooms in to focus on the hand/face areas and predicts keypoints using features with higher resolution for accurate localization. Unlike previous approaches which usually assemble multiple networks, ZoomNet has a single network that is end-to-end trainable. It unifies five network heads including the human body pose estimator, hand and face detectors, and hand and face pose estimators into a single network with shared low-level features.

AccoMontage is a model for accompaniment arrangement, a type of music generation task involving intertwined constraints of melody, harmony, texture, and music structure. AccoMontage generates piano accompaniments for folk/pop songs based on a lead sheet (i.e. a melody with chord progression). It first retrieves phrase montages from a database while recombining them structurally using dynamic programming. Second, chords of the retrieved phrases are manipulated to match the lead sheet via style transfer. Lastly, the system offers controls over the generation process. In contrast to pure deep learning approaches, AccoMontage uses a hybrid pathway, in which rule-based optimization and deep learning are both leveraged.

In this work, we present a conceptually simple and effective method to train a strong bilingual multimodal representation model. Starting from the pretrained multimodal representation model CLIP released by OpenAI, we switched its text encoder with a pretrained multilingual text encoder XLM-R, and aligned both languages and image representations by a two-stage training schema consisting of teacher learning and contrastive learning. We validate our method through evaluations of a wide range of tasks. We set new state-of-the-art performances on a bunch of tasks including ImageNet-CN, Flicker30k- CN, and COCO-CN. Further, we obtain very close performances with CLIP on almost all tasks, suggesting that one can simply alter the text encoder in CLIP for extended capabilities such as multilingual understanding. Our models and code are available at https://github.com/FlagAI-Open/FlagAI.

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