On-device inference holds great potential for increased energy efficiency, responsiveness, and privacy in edge ML systems. However, due to less capable ML models that can be embedded in resource-limited devices, use cases are limited to simple inference tasks such as visual keyword spotting, gesture recognition, and predictive analytics. In this context, the Hierarchical Inference (HI) system has emerged as a promising solution that augments the capabilities of the local ML by offloading selected samples to an edge server or cloud for remote ML inference. Existing works demonstrate through simulation that HI improves accuracy. However, they do not account for the latency and energy consumption on the device, nor do they consider three key heterogeneous dimensions that characterize ML systems: hardware, network connectivity, and models. In contrast, this paper systematically compares the performance of HI with on-device inference based on measurements of accuracy, latency, and energy for running embedded ML models on five devices with different capabilities and three image classification datasets. For a given accuracy requirement, the HI systems we designed achieved up to 73% lower latency and up to 77% lower device energy consumption than an on-device inference system. The key to building an efficient HI system is the availability of small-size, reasonably accurate on-device models whose outputs can be effectively differentiated for samples that require remote inference. Despite the performance gains, HI requires on-device inference for all samples, which adds a fixed overhead to its latency and energy consumption. Therefore, we design a hybrid system, Early Exit with HI (EE-HI), and demonstrate that compared to HI, EE-HI reduces the latency by up to 59.7% and lowers the device's energy consumption by up to 60.4%.
Silent speech interface is a promising technology that enables private communications in natural language. However, previous approaches only support a small and inflexible vocabulary, which leads to limited expressiveness. We leverage contrastive learning to learn efficient lipreading representations, enabling few-shot command customization with minimal user effort. Our model exhibits high robustness to different lighting, posture, and gesture conditions on an in-the-wild dataset. For 25-command classification, an F1-score of 0.8947 is achievable only using one shot, and its performance can be further boosted by adaptively learning from more data. This generalizability allowed us to develop a mobile silent speech interface empowered with on-device fine-tuning and visual keyword spotting. A user study demonstrated that with LipLearner, users could define their own commands with high reliability guaranteed by an online incremental learning scheme. Subjective feedback indicated that our system provides essential functionalities for customizable silent speech interactions with high usability and learnability.
In this paper, we consider the task of spotting spoken keywords in silent video sequences -- also known as visual keyword spotting. To this end, we investigate Transformer-based models that ingest two streams, a visual encoding of the video and a phonetic encoding of the keyword, and output the temporal location of the keyword if present. Our contributions are as follows: (1) We propose a novel architecture, the Transpotter, that uses full cross-modal attention between the visual and phonetic streams; (2) We show through extensive evaluations that our model outperforms the prior state-of-the-art visual keyword spotting and lip reading methods on the challenging LRW, LRS2, LRS3 datasets by a large margin; (3) We demonstrate the ability of our model to spot words under the extreme conditions of isolated mouthings in sign language videos.
The goal of this work is to automatically determine whether and when a word of interest is spoken by a talking face, with or without the audio. We propose a zero-shot method suitable for in the wild videos. Our key contributions are: (1) a novel convolutional architecture, KWS-Net, that uses a similarity map intermediate representation to separate the task into (i) sequence matching, and (ii) pattern detection, to decide whether the word is there and when; (2) we demonstrate that if audio is available, visual keyword spotting improves the performance both for a clean and noisy audio signal. Finally, (3) we show that our method generalises to other languages, specifically French and German, and achieves a comparable performance to English with less language specific data, by fine-tuning the network pre-trained on English. The method exceeds the performance of the previous state-of-the-art visual keyword spotting architecture when trained and tested on the same benchmark, and also that of a state-of-the-art lip reading method.
Visual keyword spotting (KWS) is the problem of estimating whether a text query occurs in a given recording using only video information. This paper focuses on visual KWS for words unseen during training, a real-world, practical setting which so far has received no attention by the community. To this end, we devise an end-to-end architecture comprising (a) a state-of-the-art visual feature extractor based on spatiotemporal Residual Networks, (b) a grapheme-to-phoneme model based on sequence-to-sequence neural networks, and (c) a stack of recurrent neural networks which learn how to correlate visual features with the keyword representation. Different to prior works on KWS, which try to learn word representations merely from sequences of graphemes (i.e. letters), we propose the use of a grapheme-to-phoneme encoder-decoder model which learns how to map words to their pronunciation. We demonstrate that our system obtains very promising visual-only KWS results on the challenging LRS2 database, for keywords unseen during training. We also show that our system outperforms a baseline which addresses KWS via automatic speech recognition (ASR), while it drastically improves over other recently proposed ASR-free KWS methods.